Why African Americans Choose Democratic Party an Example of the Topic Government and Law Essays by

Why African Americans Choose Democratic Party by Expert Prof Akunga | 26 Jul 2016 Every major political party adopts a set of government programs. These programs contain details about how their candidates intend to run the affairs of the government once elected. Nowadays political parties say very little about their ideologies and principles on a particular issue but they give more emphasis on their proposed solutions to problems that concern the voters. Need essay sample on "Why African Americans Choose Democratic Party" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed It is these programs of government that the voters use as the basis for choosing a candidate or political party. Voters tend to identify themselves with these programs and the political parties not only attract their attention but also their loyalty. Political parties often rely on these platforms to win elections and to appeal to a number of voters including the minorities. These platforms of government may involve passage of laws that will help generate more jobs, or ensure equality between the blacks and whites or protect civil rights. It is these programs of government that the Democratic Party used to attract its voters, particularly African Americans. Though historically speaking, the African Americans favored the Republican Party over the Democratic Party certain events in our history have caused the African American voters to shift their allegiance from Republicans to the Democrats. The African Americans who once identified themselves as the Republicans decided that the Democrats can serve them better and can give them better protection for their rights and can promote their ideals and aspirations as a race. Indeed they thought that though the Democratic Party may not be perfect, considering its track record it is still the best vehicle for Black political participation, representation, and empowerment. (Donna Brazile, 2006) Our Customers Frequently Tell EssayLab writers:I'm not in the mood to write my paper. Because I want to spend time with my familyEssay writers suggest: Get The Best Writing Essays Ever In TimeEssay Company Review College Papers Online Cheap Custom Essays Cheap Essays Within Hours This Research Paper aims to search and explain the possible reasons why the African Americans developed a habit of voting in favor of the Republicans during the early part of 19th Century. This research paper will also find out and explain why there was a change in the habit and shift of loyalty on the part of African-American voters from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. This research paper also aims to find out whether in the near future the Democrats will continue to maintain the allegiance and win the support of the African American voters. African Americans Allegiance to Republican Party History will show that as a race, the African Americans were discriminated against by the whites. The whites were infatuated with the idea of their racial superiority over the African Americans. Because of these ideas of superiority, there was nothing unusual about the white employees being preferred over the blacks. They were denied the right to vote. Slavery was tolerated as a social practice. In fact, in those times the social status of a person was measured in terms of the number of African American slaves he had. The more slaves he had the higher his social status was. There was nothing extraordinary about the passage of laws providing for the separation of the blacks and whites in the use of public facilities. In the landmark ruling in Plessy v. Fergusson, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the constitutionality of a law that required segregation of blacks and whites in the use of public utilities. It declared that so long as each race was given its own facilities then there is no discrimination pursuant to the Separate but Equal doctrine. The societys toleration for discrimination was affirmed by Anthony J. Badger in Different Perspective on the Civil Rights Movement, to wit: In 1984 Jimmy Carter reflected on growing up in the segregated South. He recalled that as a young child, he, like many white children, had had an African American child as his closest friend. The two children spent all their play time together. One day they traveled on the train from Plains to Americus. Carter went into one compartment; his young friend went into another. What struck Carter in retrospect was not that the facilities had been segregated, but that, at the time, he had not thought anything about it. Anthony J. Badger It was because of this situation that the African Americans felt that they needed assistance from the government. They needed someone that will represent their interest in the government. They wanted candidates who are willing to make the necessary changes in the government and who are willing to fight and protect their rights. The Republican Party filled this important shoe for them. It was considered as the champion of the African Americans. Since the later part of the 19th Century until the early part of the 20th Century, the Republican Party earned their solid vote. It was because of their solid support that they won in the elections. It is stated that between 1860 and 1912, Republicans won every presidential election except for two. Northerners overwhelmingly supported the Republican Party. In the South, a majority of African Americans supported the Republican Party, while only a small percentage of whites did so. (Republican Party) The Republican Party earned the loyalty of the African Americans not only because of the significant efforts they made in giving the African Americans equal rights but because of the perception of a large number of African Americans that the Democrats were anti-African Americans. Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was considered as the Great Emancipator. He passed several laws that aimed to fight for the rights of the African American. The Republicans were also responsible for the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. During the term of Ulysses Grant, another Republican, the Fifteenth Amendment was also ratified which granted the right to vote to every male citizen regardless of his age, race, color or previous condition of servitude. It is because of these laws passed by the Republicans that they earned the loyalty of African Americans. It is because of these reasons that the African Americans developed a habit of voting in favor of the Republican Party. On the other hand, the perception of the African Americans toward the Democrats during those times was that they were anti-African Americans. They tolerated slavery and wanted to retain it. They were also perceived to be responsible for the passage of several Jim Crow Laws. One example of Jim Crow Law is the law passed in Texas which required the separation in the use of public facilities between the white and the black. African Americans shift of allegiance to Democratic Party In the middle part of the 20th Century, the relationship between the Republican Party and the African Americans, however, turned sour. The Great Depression which struck the nation had more serious effects for the African Americans. They lost their jobs and had nothing to feed their family. They blamed the past Republican Presidents who did nothing to provide a solution to their economic problems. They felt that the government failed to address their needs quickly and efficiently. The habit in favor of the Republican Party was lost and the African Americans wanted to look for better alternatives. On the other hand, a Democratic candidate, Franklin D. Roosevelt was very active in trying to find a solution to the Great Depression. Because of his efforts, he won a landslide victory in the 1932 presidential elections. He was also the only person to be elected four times to the presidency. Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted major reforms in the treatment of African Americans. He came up with massive programs, such as the New Deal, which helped the African Americans cope with the economic crisis they experienced. He focused on relief of unemployment and rural distress, recovery of the economy and the long-term structural reforms to prevent a repetition of the Depression. (Democratic Party) Between 1932 and 1980, the Republicans won only four presidential elections and enjoyed a majority in the United States Congress for only four years. (Republican Party). During his first few days as American President, Roosevelt passed the following laws, the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) that included the Public Works Administration (PWA), and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA). Although these laws had nothing to do with the civil rights of African Americans and had no connection with furthering their interests, these legislations earned the support of the African Americans because the president sought to ensure that the every American including the African Americans received the aid from the government. (Sue Pennington) Efforts were made to ensure that there was no discrimination in the distribution of assistance and that everyone had their fair share regardless of their color. T his intention to ensure that the programs are implemented fairly represented a drastic change for the African Americans. For the first time, there was a Democrat who treated them equally and fairly. This signaled the beginning of the shift of allegiance of the African Americans from Republican to the Democratic Party. In addition, despite the perceptions against the Democrats, Franklin Roosevelt endeared himself to the African Americans not only because of his programs but also because of his treatment and attitude toward the African Americans. He, together with his wife, were often publicly seen and photographed with African-Americans. (Sue Pennington) This was rather unusual considering that the no president before him had done the same. He also appointed more African American to high federal positions. He also created the first Black Cabinet which served as the advisor of Roosevelt in the implementation of his programs and policies. The Black Cabinet had two major tasks: to ensure that African Americans had jobs in government agencies the Cabinet represented African Americans working from within the structure of the government. Aside from the programs and policies of Democrats, there were controversies involving Republicans which contributed to the strained relationship between the Republicans and the African Americans.The Republican Richard Nixon hurt the image of his political party by becoming involved in the Watergate Scandal. Nixon denied his involvement in the scandal but when faced with impeachment, he was forced to resign. The Future of Democratic Party In politics, there are no permanent friends or no permanent enemies but only permanent interest. This may be a cliche but this captures the reality of American politics and any other politics in the world. The loyalty of the voters will remain in one candidate or political party so long as these candidates and political parties continue to listen to them and protect their interest. If the candidate or political party gets tired of taking care of his voters and stops protecting their interest by prioritizing his own interest, the voters will start looking for other alternatives. The voters will continue to check the programs of the government of every political party or candidate. The same thing happened with the Republican Party when they lost the support and loyalty of the African Americans. The same thing might happen to the Democrats if they get tired of protecting the interest of the African Americans. The statistics prove that political support and allegiance is like a pendulum which could swing in another direction in such a short time. In a study conducted by the National Opinion Poll, they found out that 63% of African American adults identified themselves as Democrats compared to 74% in 2000. Also, in 2000, only 4% of African-Americans identified themselves as Republicans, but 10% did in 2002. (Cliff Hocker, 2003) However, I believe that the Democrats will in the near future continue to get the support of the African Americans. Firstly, it continues to fight for the interest of African Americans and to promote equality for all races. Secondly, the African Americans themselves have witnessed that under the leadership of the Democratic Party, it has helped in the emergence of a black middle class and in the significant reduction in the economic and health gaps between the white and the black. Both the Democrats and the Republicans may talk about equality but it is only the Democrats who in practice have truly valued equality. Consider the forty-threeAfrican Americans who are members of Congress. (Donna Brazile) They are also Democrats. The only African Woman in Senate is also a Democrat. (Matt Lardie) Further, the Democrats have shown that they are willing to place African Americans in leadership positions not only within the party but within the government itself. It is predicted that once the Democrats regained the majority in the House of Representatives, an African American will chair the Judiciary Committee which will oversee the judicial branch of government and will handle the criminal and civil proceedings, constitutions, enforcement of laws, and warrantless arrests and searches. This could help end the violations of the civil rights and liberties of their fellow African American which continues to happen until now. If Democrats will get the majority in the House of Representative, it is also possible that an African American will lead the House Ways and Means Committee which has control over medicare, unemployment, benefits, welfare, foster care, and adoption. These important political positions will help change the lives of most African Americans. Indeed, it is only the Democratic Party who truly espoused the ideals of democracy, equality, and respect for human rights. They helped gave the African Americans a voice in shaping the course of our nation. With these, then there is no reason to change allegiance in the near future. References: Brazile, Donna. 2006. What is the Real Political Party for Black America? Ebony. Retrieved January 17, 2007 Democratic Party. Retrieved January 17, 2007 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States) Hocker, Cliff. (2003) A shift from the left: study shows blacks drifting from Democratic Party - Washington Report. Black Enterprise. Retrieved January 17, 2007 Lardie, Matt. Why the Democratic Party has the Mess I Love. The Pendulum Online. Retrieved January 17, 2007 Pennington, Sue. African Americans and the Democratic Party. Retrieved January 17, 2007 Republican Party Retrieved January 17, 2007

The Things You Can Learn From Death Records

The Things You Can Learn From Death Records Many people looking for information about their ancestors skip right past the death record, making a beeline for their marriage and birth certificates. Sometimes we already know where and when our ancestor died, and figure its not worth the time and money to track down the death certificate. Another scenario has our ancestor disappearing between one census and the next, but after a half-hearted search, we decide its not worth the effort since we already know most of his other vital facts. Those death records, however, can tell us much more about our ancestor than where and when he died. Death records, including death certificates, obituaries and funeral home records, can include a wealth of information on the deceased, including the names of their parents, siblings, children, and spouse; when and where they were born and/or married; the occupation of the deceased; possible military service; and cause of death. All of these clues can be helpful in telling us more about our ancestor, as well as leading us to new sources of information on his life. Date Place of Birth or Marriage Does the death certificate, obituary or other death record give a date and place of birth? A clue to the spouses maiden name? Information found in death records can often provide the clue you need to locate a birth or marriage record. Names of Family Members Death records are often a good source for names of parents, spouse, children and next of kin. The death certificate will usually list at least the next of kin or the informant (often a family member) who provided the information on the death certificate, while an obituary notice may list numerous family members - both living and deceased. Occupation of the Deceased Whether they were a farmer, an accountant or a coal miner, their choice of occupation probably defined at least a part of who they were as a person. You may choose to just record this in your interesting tidbits folder or, possibly, follow up for further research. Certain occupations, such as railroad workers, may have employment, pension or other occupational records available. Possible Military Service Obituaries, tombstones and, occasionally, death certificates are a good place to look if you suspect that your ancestor may have served in the military. They will often list the military branch and unit, and possibly information on rank and the years in which your ancestor served. With these details, you can then look for further information about your ancestor in military records. Cause of Death An important clue for anyone compiling a medical family history, the cause of death can often be found listed on a death certificate. If you cant find it there, then the funeral home (if still in existence) may be able to provide you with further information. As you go back in time, however, youll begin to find interesting causes of death, such as bad blood (which often meant syphilis) and dropsy, meaning edema or swelling. You may also find clues to newsworthy deaths such as occupational accidents, fires or surgical mishaps, that could lead to additional records. Death records also offer information that may lead to further research avenues. A death certificate, for example, may list the burial place and the funeral home - leading to a search in cemetery or funeral home records. An obituary or funeral notice may mention a church where the funeral service is being held, another source for further research. Since about 1967, most death certificates in the United States list the deceaseds Social Security number, which makes it easy to request a copy of the original application (SS-5) for a Social Security card, full of genealogical details.

John Q Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

John Q - Essay Example As the discussion highlights he holds several people hostage inside the hospital and his demand is that his son’s name should be placed on the donor recipient list as soon as possible. The hostage negotiator steps back for a while so that John can cool off and in the meantime, John interacts with some of the hostages. One of them is a young pregnant couple Miriam and Steve, who are anxious about their baby and hope it is healthy. Another couple are Julie and Mitch and it is evident to everyone that Julie’s broken arm is not the result of the car accident as the couple claim but rather the result of Mitch beating her up. From this paper it is clear that John agrees with the hostage negotiator to release a few hostage if his son’s name is place don the recipient list within an hour. In a quarrel that breaks out between Mitch and Steve as to who is to be released, Mitch throws a racial slur at Steve and the two men begin to fight. When John Q intervenes to try and pull them apart, Mitch sprays pepper spray on him and also stabs him with a scalpel. As they wrestle with each other, John Q’s gun is knocked away and Mitch exhorts his girlfriend to pick it up and hand it him. She however sprays him with pepper spray instead, kicking him viciously to repay him for his beating her. John manages to grab the handcuffs from a guard and lock Mitch to the radiator. He releases Steve, Miriam and another pregnant hostage named Rosa. In the meantime however, despite the negotiator’s efforts, the police inspector decides to overrule him and intervene in the matter. A SWAT team is enlisted to send a sniper into the building. Meanwhile, John Q has a conversation with his wife and son, assuring them that all will be well, quite unaware that his emotional, personal conversation is also being picked up by the TV cameras and mikes.

The Essential Husserl Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Essential Husserl - Essay Example Husserl in his work refers to the theory of species as being weak in one way or the other. The raised objections over the theory is concerned more about the context of the system that is very sensitive. Therefore, an indexical experience that relies on the content has to serve minor role of a secondary propositional duty. Thus, it may end up determining the object, which may be referred to earlier. According to Husserl, for two experiences that are indexical, they have to have one object in mind because the moments of issue for such a case can lead to the same matter that is ideal. Husserl differentiates between the words and their general meanings while on the other hand the respective meaning of that word (Welton 163). This theory does not actually help to differentiate between the two types of meanings. That is, if perfect matters are intentional contents and remains constant, then, propositional content will differ. He further feels that indexical experiences are at times singula r because they are involved in representing one object at a time or it may be a group of objects. For instance, a subject experienced at any given moment as in the real world as being special in all represented worlds that are possible. Thus, the potential or actual experiences can be attributed or subjected to the experiencing subjects. This is what Husserl refers to as intentional horizon that has an anticipated content. According to Husserl, all experiences that are encompassed in horizon have a common bond of identity in time course. He refers to this as label X and it applies to objects with similar subjects. The determinable X is an indexical experience that seeks to find out the earlier reference for the mentioned experience. This should not be the species ideal meaning alone. In order to come up with the dynamic theory, then we have to find out the intentional acts that are components of cognitive structures. In this state, the same object is represented through changing tim e. In his research, he refers to mental files as individual notions, which are open. We can therefore refer to Husserl as an early theorist and non-naive on intentional content (Welton 166). He further discusses the ‘epoche’ phenomenon. His theory on the content seems to coincide with the phenomenon of epoche. The theory of epoche was developed to radicalize constrains that are present in logical investigation. This has to carry out from the first person’s point of view. This is to have the experiences that the subject is exposed to and the intended results. The advantage of doing the experiment in the first person context is that no difference arises between non-veridical and veridical cases. Therefore, one cannot be a victim and at the same time become be in a position to detect any error that is perceived in his or her actions. Thus, it is from this point that Husserl derived phenomenological ideas that explains detailed existence of objects in the universe. I n summary, epoche demands that we focus on the represented objects. Husserl comes up with two different types of epoch; the universal and local (Welton 167). Husserl focused on local epoche using perceptual experiences as the foundation of one’s experience. In order to describe an experience in details, one has to be a participant in the experiment. That is performing an experiment from the first person point of view. In perceptual experi

Opinion on Diop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Opinion on Diop - Essay Example He was obsessed by the same self serving misinformation held by racist white scholars implying that Africans had no significant civilization and strongly opposed their notion. He argued that the civilization was started by the Egyptians who were black and not by foreigners who trekked into Egypt as suggested by the white scholars. He proposed that Africans could not be categorized into one group that existed in the south of the Sahara. This was in opposition to the claim by white scholars that the inhabitants of Egypt in North Africa were white. He argued that rather, Africans had a wide variation in skin color, hair type and facial shape just as happens among other human races. I believe Diop was as racist as the white scholars. His perception was that the scholars conveniently selected white pharaohs and ignored the original black ones to show Egypt as a white civilization. Diop did researches determined to prove that ancient Egyptians bore similar physical traits as present day black Africans. He went further to claim that, linguistically, ancient Egyptian was related to his contemporary Wolof language of West Africa. In conclusion, I believe most of Diop’s efforts and work were aimed at wrestling civilization claims from the Western world. He was filled with an inferiority complex and tried to overcome it by attempting to link his Wolof ethnicity with the Egyptians. I also believe that is the reason he insisted on placing the human civilization credit upon the Egyptians, whom he claimed to be black.

The Factors affecting dividend payout policy

The Factors affecting dividend payout policy INTRODUCTION Dividend policy in the firm has been the major matter for recognizing how managers set dividend ratio and change dividend given to stockholders. The existing literature on dividend payout ratios provides firms with no generally accepted prescription for the level of dividend payment that will maximize share value. Black (1976) in his study concluded with this question is that what the corporation should do about dividend policy. It has been argued that dividend policy has no cause on either the price of a firms share or its cost of capital. Thus, extensive studies were done to find out various factors affecting dividend payout ratio of a firm. The setting of corporate dividend policy remains a troublesome issue and involves ocean deep judgment by decision makers. The behavior of dividend policy is the most debatable issue in the corporate finance literature and still keeps its prominent place both in developed and emerging markets. Many researchers try to uncover the issue regarding the dividend behavior or dynamics and determinants of dividend policy but still dont have an acceptable explanation for the observed dividend behavior of firms (Black, et.al (1976), Allen and Michaely, 2003 and Brealey and Myers 2005). One of the well known explanations of dividend behavior is the smoothing of firms dividends vice versa earnings and growth. Linter (1956) found that firms in the United States adjust their dividends smoothly to maintain a target long run payout ratio. Numerous studies appeared after this work and facts suggested that the dividend policy of the companies varies from country to country due to various institutions and capital market differences. The study examined the relationship between determinants of dividend payout ratios from the context of a developing country like Pakistan. The primary objective of this thesis is to find out whether numerous factors influence the dividend payout ratio of Sugar Sector in Pakistan. The purpose of this study is to investigate the dynamics and determinants of dividend policy of sugar firms in Pakistan. After that it explored how Pakistani firms set their dynamic dividend policies in a different institutional environment than that of developed markets. This study examined whether Pakistani firms follow stable dividend policies as in developed markets or they are going to retain their earnings. The paper also identified the areas of firm level factors that influence the degree of dividend smoothing. This paper indicated that importance of institutional features towards the dynamic of dividend policy and also critical out the advantages of examining the dividend policy in different institutional environments. The outcomes of the thesis provided meaningful and handy information in the role of institutional factors which creates dividend policy at firms level. More than a few studies become visible after this work and evidence suggest that the dividend policy of the c ompanies varies from country to country due to various institutions and capital market differences. The Pakistans capital market and the economy have several important features for examining the dynamics of dividend policy. Firstly Pakistan is moving towards the development and improving the economy position in the world since the 1980. Pakistan capital markets are much better than before. Many studies conclude that firms are likely to pay constant dividend during the high growth period and it is interesting to find that how dynamic dividend policy is determined in growing economy like Pakistan. In fact, in Pakistan the many major investors are still disagreed with dividends and consider stock prices positive reception as the major part of stock returns therefore, it is assumed that investor attitude towards dividends is expected to have an impact on the way in which firms set their dividend policy in Pakistan. Sugar Industry in Pakistan The sugar industry plays an important role in the economy of the Pakistan. It is the second largest industry after textiles. The Pakistan sugar industry is the second largest agro based industry consists of 78 sugar mills with per year crushing capacity of over 6.1 million tones. Sugarcane farming and sugar manufacturing contribute significantly to the national exchequer in the form of various taxes and levies. Sugar manufacturing and its by-products have contributed appreciably towards the foreign exchange resources through import substitution. The Sugar industry employs over 75000 people, including management experts, technologists, engineers, and financial experts, skilled, semiskilled and unskilled workers. It contributes around 4 billion rupees only under the head of excise duty and other levies to the Government are also paramount significance. In the year 2008-09 sugarcane production is estimated at 51.5 MMT, a decrease of 19 percent over the previous year due to both a decline in area harvested and yield. Milling policies and practices, coupled with attractive prices for alternative/competing crops (rice, cotton and sunflower) and insufficient irrigation supplies are major factors limiting crop expansion in the country. In the year 2009-10 sugarcane production is estimate at 53.6 MMT, an increase of 4 percent over the previous year due to an expected increase in area and yield. A shortage of cane supply during the current crushing season led to an increase in cane prices. This situation benefitted growers who received prices higher than the indicative prices announced by the Government. This development is expected to contribute to an increase in sugarcane area and productivity in the ensuing year. Moreover, last years higher production of rice and sunflower led to lower prices received by farmers, thereby encouraging the switch back to sugarcane. Purpose of the Study In Pakistan there were few firms which paid dividend to stockholders constantly. For this explore, the listed sugar firms of Karachi Stock Exchange (KSE) were not able to pay their dividends and which factors are influencing or determining the dividend policy in Pakistan. In this thesis it examined the number of firms various factors and their function in dividends policy. The liquidity of the stock market, is the profitable firms are paying dividends in Pakistan, is the firms with greater investment opportunities pay less dividends in Pakistan, is the dividends and debts are substitutes and the degree of leverage is negatively associated with dividends payments and finally examined the firms with greater cash flows pay lesser dividend in Pakistan. Research Objective Objective of thesis has to find out the relationship between dividend policy and operating cash flow, EBIT, Sales and Debt to Equity Ratio. It is very important for investors to examine the factors of dividend policy that whether they have been impact on the sugar sector of Pakistan or not. Hypotheses Development H1: There is association between CFO and dividend payout ratio. H2: There is association between Debt to Equity and dividend payout ratio. H3: There is association between Revenue and dividend payout ratio. H4: There is association between EBIT and dividend payout ratio Thesis Structure: This thesis is composed of five chapters. The first part of a thesis is introduction (Chapter I).Then after it evaluates and discusses the literature review in (Chapter II), in this chapter it examined the dividend payout policy of Pakistan and the main factors that influenced on it, theories, models put forward by many well-known authors is examined various studies. In (chapter III), it explained research methods and sample in detail. (In chapter IV),examined the dividend payout policy and the main indicators that affect the dividend payout policy of listed firms on the Karachi Stock Exechange 100 over the period 2003-2008 and present the interpretation of results. Finally in Chapter V, we present and discuss the main contributions and conclusion, implication and recommendation of this thesis. CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW Naceur (2006) found that the high profitable firms with more stable earnings can manage the larger cash flows and because of this they pay larger dividends. Moreover, the firms with fast growth distribute the larger dividends so as attract to investors. The ownership concentration does not have any impact on dividend payments. In Indian case Reddy (2006) showed that the dividends paying firms are more profitable, large in size, and growing. The corporate tax or tax preference theory does not appear to hold true in Indian context. Amidu and Abor (2006) found dividend payout policy decision of listed firms in Ghana Stock Exchange is influenced by profitability, cash flow position, and growth scenario and investment opportunities of the firms. Lease (2000) the firms should follow a life cycle and imitate managements assessment of the importance of market imperfection and factors including taxes to equity holders, agency cost asymmetric information, floating cost and transaction costs. Linter (1956) studied and developed a compact mathematical model based on survey of 28 well established industrial U.S. firms which is well thought-out to be a finance classic. According to him the dividend payment pattern of a firm is influenced by the current year earnings and previous year dividends. Linters (1956) study of dividend policy found that a firms bottom line net income is the key determinant of dividend changes, which in his sample are largely dividend increases since he primarily surveys healthy firms. If one can extrapolate this finding to dividend decreases, it implies that low bottom line earnings drive dividend reductions. Jensen (1986) argued that debt is an effective substitute mechanism for dividends in this respect. By issuing debt instead of equity, managers give bondholders the right to take the firm into bankruptcy court if managers do not maintain their promise to make the interest and principal payments. This substitutability between debt and dividends as alternative mechanisms for reducing the agency costs of FCF implies that firms that use low debt ratios will tend to follow a policy of high- dividend payout. Alli (1993) the liquidity or cash flows position is also an important determinant of dividend payouts. A poor liquidity position means less generous dividends due to shortage of cash. It reveals that dividend payments depend more on cash flows, which reflect the companys ability to pay dividends, than on current earnings, which are less heavily influenced by accounting practices. They claim current earnings do no really reflect the firms ability to pay dividends. Farzad Farsio and Amanda Geary (1983) in their research the relationship between Dividends and Earnings say that dividends have no explanatory power to forecast future earnings. They presented four cases for possible effects of earnings on future dividends and show that there should be no significant relationship between dividends and future earnings in the long run. The contribution of this study is that it provides financial managers and investors with evidence that it would be a mistake to base investment decisions on inferences about dividend/earnings relationships that rely on some certain short-term periods. John and Kalay (1982) Debt agreement to minimize dividend payments are necessary to prevent bondholder wealth transfers to shareholders. An additional way dividend payout ratio affects agency costs is the reduction of agency cost through increased monitoring by capital market. Analysis shows the positive association among profitability and dividend payout ratio, corporate tax and cash flows. The study also suggests that when the liquidity of companies increases the companies disburse more dividends. The companies with dynamic profitability find out hard to disburse dividends. Last but not least, conclusion of the study shows that cash flow, profitability, growth and investment opportunities influence the dividend payout policy. Amidu and Abor (2006) conducted and they have taken the Payout Ratio as dependent variable and defined as dividend per share divided by earning per share. The included the explanatory variable profitability(profit), risk(risk), cash flows (cash), corporate tax(tax), institutional holdings(INSH), Sales Growth and Market to Book value(MTBV). By using the Panel data which involves the pooling of observations on a cross sectional of unit over several time periods and provides the results that are simply not measurable in pure cross-sections or exact time series studies. Because the panel time series is different from a regular time series or cross section regression equation and each variable use the double subscript in the data. Jensen (1986) concluded that funds remaining after financing all positive net present value projects cause conflicts of interest between managers and shareholders. Dividends and debt interest payment decrease the free Dividend payout ratios in Ghana cash flow available to managers to invest in marginal net present value projects and manager perquisite consumption. Crutchley and Hansen (1989) examined the hypothesis that financial leverage, dividends and managerial ownership are jointly determined by firms attempts to minimize the total agency costs of debt and equity. Chaplinsky and Niehaus (1992) examine whether managerial ownership share and financial leverage common determinants. In addition to the agency costs of debt and equity, they also assess whether these decisions are governed by the tax advantage of debt, the costs of issuing securities and the demand for risk sharing by insiders. Avazian (2006) conducted the study on United Stated listed firms at NYE and find that decision to smooth dividends depend at the part of public market access as proxies by the rating of bonds. In their study dividend payment is the optimal for firms raising debts in the public Unknown bond markets but not for firms in the private informed bank markets. In this logic the dividend decision is related to information asymmetric between the managers and the creditors of the firms. Pruitt and Gitman (1991) found that risk (year-to-year variability of earnings) also important factor firms dividend payout ratio. A company that has constant earnings is often able to forecast approximately what its future earnings will be. Company is therefore more likely to pay out a higher percentage of its earnings than a firm with unpredictable earnings. The liquidity or cash flow from operation is an important factor of dividend payouts policy. A less liquidity position means less generous dividend due to shortage of cash. He exposed that dividend payments depend more on cash flows, which reflect the companys ability to pay dividends, than on current earnings, which are less heavily influenced by accounting practices. They claim current earnings do not really reflect the firms ability to pay dividends. (Alli, 1993) Green (1993) questioned the irrelevance argument and investigated the relationship between the dividends and investment and financing decisions. Their study showed that dividend payout ratio is not totally decided after a firms investment and financing decisions have been made. Dividend decision is taken along investment and financing decisions. Higgins (1981) indicated a shortest link between growths and financing needs, speedily growing firms have external financing needs because working capital needs usually exceed the cash flows from new sales. Daniel (2007) conducted the study that they found that firms are more likely to manage their earnings upward when their earnings would otherwise fall down of expected dividend levels. The earning management behavior significantly impacts the likelihood of dividend cut. The firms made discretionally accruals because reported earnings to exceed the expected dividend levels are significantly less likely to cut dividends than those firms whose reported earnings fall down of expected level of dividends. They conclude that managers treat expected dividend levels as a vital earning threshold. Higgins (1972) and McCabe (1979) et.al the leverage (Lev) also influenced the dividend behavior of the firm, if the level of the leverage is high that mean the firm is high risky in the cash flows. The negative effect of leverage on dividends payments is documented in the literature, finds that the firms with higher leverage pay lower dividends in order to evade the cost of raising external capital of the firm. Lintner (1956) founded that past dividends of the companies and current earnings are the key determinants of current dividends and managers prefer to maintain stable dividends and make cyclic adjustments toward a target payout ratio. Arditti (1976) carried out research in order to evaluated dividend policy with respect to taxes and uncertainty. The purpose of this paper has been to tackle the distressing dilemma of the zero dividend solution by clearly incorporating MMs original proposal that dividends have an information aspect that is of potential worth to investors. The analysis of ambiguity they have offered is only one of many possible hypotheses which can account for the experimental fact that companies naturally do not take on intense dividend policies. Arnott and Asness (2003) suggested that a higher payout ratio results in low future growth, based their study on America stock market it founded that higher aggregate dividend payout ratios were associated with higher future earnings growth. Modigliani and Miller (1985) carried out research to evaluate dividend Policy under asymmetric information. The Standard finance model of the firms dividend/investment/financing decisions gives manager more appropriate information regarding the firms current earnings. The purpose of research is to replace the assumption built by Miller and Modigliani that the outside investors and inside managers have the same information about companies profit and future income with the assumption that inside managers know more than outside investors about the actual situation of firms current earnings. James A. Gentry (1990) informed about free cash flow analysis, showed that the financial position of a company depends upon its ability to generate net operating cash flows that are sufficient to cover up a hierarchy of cash outflows. The profiles generated from a large sample of companies show that relative cash flow components vary across company size and across industry groups. The researcher hopes that these profiles will serve as benchmarks for comparing cash flow components and encourage financial analysts to use cash flow analysis. Miller and Modigliani et.al (1961) suggest that in perfect markets, dividend do not affect firms value. Shareholders are not concerned to receiving their cash flows as dividend or in shape of capital gain, as for as firms doesnt change the investment policies. In this type of situation firms dividend payout ratio effect their residual free cash flows and the result is when the free cash flow is positive firms decide to pay dividend and if negative firms decide to issue shares. They also conclude that change in dividend may be conveying the information to the market about firms future earnings. Gordon and Walter (1963) present the bird in the hand theory which says that investors always prefer cash in hand rather than a future promise of capital gain due to minimizing risk. Jensen and Meckling (1976) the agency theory is based on the conflict between managers and shareholder and the percentage of equity controlled by insider ownership should influence the dividend policy. Easterbrook (1984) gives further explanation regarding agency cost problem and says that there are two forms of agency costs; one is the cost monitoring and other is cost of risk aversion on the part of directors or managers. The firm size (SIZE) defined as natural logarithm of total assets is expected to have a positive effect on dividend payouts as large more diversified firm are likely to have very low chance of bankruptcy and can sustain higher level of debt. In investigating the determinants of dividend policy of Tunisian stock Exchange, found that the high profitable firms with more stable earnings can manage the larger cash flows and because of this they pay larger dividends. (Naceur, 2006) Baker (2007) reports that Canadian dividend paying firms are significantly larger and more profitable, having greater cash flows, ownership structure and some growth opportunities. The liquidity or cash flows position is also an important determinant of dividend payouts. A poor liquidity position means less generous dividends due to shortage of cash. Alli et.al (1993) reveal that dividend payments depend more on cash flows, which reflect the companys ability to pay dividends, than on current earnings, which are less heavily influenced by accounting practices. They claim current earnings do no really reflect the firms ability to pay dividends. Megginson and Eije (2006) examined that the dividend paying tendency of fifteen European firms decline dramatically over this period 1989 to 2003. The increase in the retained earnings to total equity doesnt increase the payout ratio, but company age does. The empirical study of Canadian dividend-paying firms found that they try to maintain stable dividends per share, are reluctant to decrease the payout level, and smoothly adjust the level of payout based on level of expected future earnings. (Adjaoud, 1986) Easterbrook (1984) argues that increasing dividends raises the probability that additional capital will have to be raised externally on a periodic basis and consequently, the firm will be subject to constant monitoring by experts and outside suppliers in the capital market. Green (1993) questioned the irrelevance argument and investigated the relationship between the dividends and investment and financing decisions. Their study showed that dividend payout levels are not totally decided after a firms investment and financing decisions have been made. Dividend decision is taken along investment and financing decisions. Partington (1983) revealed that firms use of target payout ratios, firms motives for paying dividends and level to which dividends are determined are independent of investment policy. Lipson (1998) conducted study to examine the factors that derives dividend initiations and earnings surprises, look at the performance of newly firms that started dividends with those that did not. Earnings increases following the dividend initiation and earnings revelations for initiation firms are more constructive than for those non initiating firms. In an economy that charges taxes on investment income, dividends are obviously a disadvantageous means of transferring wealth to shareholders. To validate dividend costs, two clarifications are typically given: dividends are used to solve agency problems inside the firm, or dividends are used to communicate information to the market. H. Kent Baker, Gail E. Farrelly (1983) in their study A Survey of Management Views on Dividend Policy say that the major determinants of dividend payments today appear strikingly similar to Linters behavioral model developed during the mid-1950. In particular, respondents were highly concerned with dividend continuity. Second, the respondents seem to believe that dividend policy affects share value, as evidenced by the importance attached to dividend policy in maintaining or increasing stock price. Although the survey does not uncover the exact reasons for their belief in dividend relevance, it does provide evidence that the respondents are generally aware of signaling and clientele effects. Finally, the opinions of the respondents from the utilities differ markedly from those of the other two industries. Smith and Watts (1992) examined the relationship among executive compensation, corporate financing and dividend policy. They concluded that a firms dividend policy is affected by its other corporate policy choices. Jensen et.al, Solberg and Zorn (1992) linked the interaction between financial policies (dividend payout and leverage) and insiders ownership to informational asymmetries between insiders and external investors. They found that corporate financial decisions and insider ownership are interdependent. Lintner (1956) suggested that the firms have long run target dividend payout ratios and place their attention more on dividend changes than on absolute dividend levels. He also finds that dividend changes follow shifts in long-run sustainable earnings and managers are hesitant to make dividend changes that may later need to be reversed. Managers also try to stabilize dividends and avoid dividend cuts. Linter developed a partial adjustment model to describe the dividend decision process that explained 85 percent of year-to-year dividend changes. Gordon (1959) argued that an increase in the dividend payout raise stock price (value) and lowers the cost of equity, but practical support for this position is weak. Bemstein (1996) maintain that dividend policy makes no difference because it has no effect on either stock prices or the cost of equity. According to Gordon (1959) a higher payout ratio will reduce the required rate of return (cost of capital), and hence increase the value of the firm. Miller and Rock (1985) dividends contain this private information and therefore can be used as a sign device to influence share price. An announcement of dividend increase is taken as good news and accordingly the share price reacts favorably, and vice versa. Only good-quality firms can send signals to the market through dividends and poor-quality firms cannot mimic these because of the dissipative signaling costs. According to Easterbrook (1984) the agency costs thesis predicts that dividend payments can reduce the problems associated with information asymmetry. Dividends may also serve as a mechanism to reduce cash flow under management control, and thus help to mitigate the agency problems. Reducing funds under management discretion may result in forcing them into the capital markets more frequently, thus putting them under the scrutiny of capital suppliers. The tax-preference theory posits that low dividend payout ratios lower the required rate of return and increase the market v aluation of a firms stocks. Because of the relative tax disadvantage of dividends compared to capital gains investors require a higher before-tax risk adjusted return on stocks with higher dividend yields. Higgins et.al indicated that a direct connection between growth and financing needs: growing firms have outside financing requirements because working capital needs normally go beyond the incremental cash flows from new sales. It showed those payouts ratios are negatively related to firms need top fund finance growth opportunities. (Higgins, 1972) De Angelo (2004) conducted a study on dividend policy, agency cost and earned equity. The study told that why companies pay dividends? If they didnt have their assets and capital structure, would ultimately become unsustainable as the earnings of successful firms surpass their investment opportunities. They found that dividend payments prevented major agency problems since the retention of the earnings would have given the managers command over an additional $1.6 trillion without access to better investment opportunities and without any monitoring. This sense suggests that firms with high retained earnings are especially likely to pay dividends. In this view, firms pay high dividend when earned equity to total equity is high, and decline when this ratio declines and when this ratio is zero or near to zero, meaning that firms dont have the earned equity. They finally found that the highly significant association between the decision to pay dividends and the ratio of earned equity to t otal equity controlling for size of the firm, profitability, growth, leverage, cash balance. CHAPTER-3 RESEARCH METHODS As a various factors available in literature review have been identified that they affect the dividend policy decisions of the companies. It includes some important variables in order to achieve at some positive conclusions. Multiple linear regressions model has been developed to conduct the research, which contain of dependent variable and independent variables. Dependent variable in this study has dividend payout that is defined as the percentage of earnings disbursed as dividends. While the independent variables include of profit (EBIT), sales, debt equity ratio and cash flow from operation. These four variables are used as predictors in order to conclude that how much each of the variables affects the dividend payout of sugar firms listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange over the period of eight years (2001-2008). Model: DP = ÃŽÂ ± + ÃŽÂ ²1 EBIT + ÃŽÂ ²2 sales + ÃŽÂ ²3 CFO + ÃŽÂ ²4 DER+ ÃŽÂ µ DP is the annual dividend paid by firms during the period, while ÃŽÂ ± is Alpha constant in the model. Whereas ÃŽÂ ² (beta) shows the times of the variable in the model and ÃŽÂ µ represents the error term. Variables include in the model are Earning before interest and tax, Sales per year, Cash flow from operation and Debt equity ratio. Dependent Variable: Dividend payout ratio: The dividend policy is the one of the very important issue of corporate finance. It developed the dividend model which becomes very famous and known as Linter Partial Adjustment Model. According to the Linter each firms i has target dividend payout ratio. By using the target payout ratio linter calculated the target dividend at time (Dit*) as percentage of net earnings of the firms i at the time t (Eit), i.e Dit*= ri. Eit. John Linter (1956) In this study we used dividend payout ratio as dependent variable. It is calculated by percentage of net earnings of the firms paid at the end of period. The set of determinants of dividend payout ratio consist of following variables. CFO (cash flow), Sales, EBIT (earning) and Debt to Equity Ratio (leverage). Independent Variable: There are four independent variables are used in this thesis to find out their impact on the dependent variable as dividend payout. Operating Cash Flow: The liquidity or cash flows position is also an important determinant of dividend payouts. A poor liquidity position means less giving dividends due to shortage of cash. Alli (1993) reveal that dividend payments depend more on cash flows, which reflect the companys ability to pay dividends, than on current earnings, which are less heavily influenced by accounting practices. They claim current earnings do no really reflect the firms ability to pay dividends. The market liquidity is defined as annual value of stock traded divided by the stock market capitalization. Market liquidity is one of very important factor that can influence the decision or behavior of the dividend policy. Belanes (2007) there is a negative relationship between the market liquidity and dividend yield in Tunisian Stock exchange (TSE). OCF= EBIT +Depreciation-Taxes H1: There is positive impact of CFO on dividend payout ratio. Debt to Equity Ratio (leverage): The leverage has been used as proxy of Debt to equity ratio and variable in this study. Because debt to equity is very important variable for the determinants of dividend policy,if the level of the leverage is high its mean the firm is more risky in the cash flows. The effect of negative leverage on dividends payments is already documented .Higgins (1972) and McCabe (1979) suggested that long term debt had

Hadyn Middletons Lie of the Land :: Middleton Lie of the Land Essays

Hadyn Middleton's Lie of the Land The mystical premise William Blake uses as the basis for his poetic work is not one based on a transcendent God, but the "Universal Man" who is himself God and who incorporates the cosmos as well. Blake elsewhere describes this founding image as "the human Form Divine" and names him "Albion." After becoming more familiar with the "myth" William Blake uses in his poetry, it is clear that Hadyn Middleton doesn't simply refer to Blake throughout the telling of Lie of the Land, his myths live quite comfortably inside within it. Nennius is not simply inspired by the work of Blake, he becomes Blake's work. Nennius becomes Albion. Blake's attempt to articulate a full myth of humanity's present, past, and future is clearly mirrored in Middleton's beginning, middle and end. What both Blake and Middleton explore is the fall of a man from humanity into a lower "state" of being. The fall, in Blake's myth, is not the fall of humanity away from God but a falling apart of primal people, a "fall into Division." In this event the original sin is what Blake calls "Selfhood," the attempt of an isolated part to be self-sufficient. The breakup of the all-inclusive Universal Man in Eden into exiled parts identifies the Fall with the creation-- the creation not only of man and of nature as we ordinarily know them but also of a sky god who is alien from humanity (20-21, here and throughout, page numbers refer to The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 6h ed. v.2). Middleton takes Nennius and plops him smack dab in the middle of Blake's poetic structure, in the middle of what ultimately becomes the lie of the land. When Nennius discovers the "woman's" presence, as a very young boy, he begins his "separation" into a state of selfhood; perhaps without really being conscious of this movement. He gives his life over to the power he thinks the woman possesses. He lives his life believing the "end" will eventually be brought to him from the spirit. Thus, he retreats into a world of his own making. Nennius imposes exile upon himself. The world excludes his wife, his child and all forms of human pleasure as well as human pain. Further into Blake's myth, Universal Man divides first into the "Four Mighty Ones" who are the Zoas, or chief powers and component aspects of humanity, and these in turn divide sexually into male Spectres and female Emanations (21). Hadyn Middleton's Lie of the Land :: Middleton Lie of the Land Essays Hadyn Middleton's Lie of the Land The mystical premise William Blake uses as the basis for his poetic work is not one based on a transcendent God, but the "Universal Man" who is himself God and who incorporates the cosmos as well. Blake elsewhere describes this founding image as "the human Form Divine" and names him "Albion." After becoming more familiar with the "myth" William Blake uses in his poetry, it is clear that Hadyn Middleton doesn't simply refer to Blake throughout the telling of Lie of the Land, his myths live quite comfortably inside within it. Nennius is not simply inspired by the work of Blake, he becomes Blake's work. Nennius becomes Albion. Blake's attempt to articulate a full myth of humanity's present, past, and future is clearly mirrored in Middleton's beginning, middle and end. What both Blake and Middleton explore is the fall of a man from humanity into a lower "state" of being. The fall, in Blake's myth, is not the fall of humanity away from God but a falling apart of primal people, a "fall into Division." In this event the original sin is what Blake calls "Selfhood," the attempt of an isolated part to be self-sufficient. The breakup of the all-inclusive Universal Man in Eden into exiled parts identifies the Fall with the creation-- the creation not only of man and of nature as we ordinarily know them but also of a sky god who is alien from humanity (20-21, here and throughout, page numbers refer to The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 6h ed. v.2). Middleton takes Nennius and plops him smack dab in the middle of Blake's poetic structure, in the middle of what ultimately becomes the lie of the land. When Nennius discovers the "woman's" presence, as a very young boy, he begins his "separation" into a state of selfhood; perhaps without really being conscious of this movement. He gives his life over to the power he thinks the woman possesses. He lives his life believing the "end" will eventually be brought to him from the spirit. Thus, he retreats into a world of his own making. Nennius imposes exile upon himself. The world excludes his wife, his child and all forms of human pleasure as well as human pain. Further into Blake's myth, Universal Man divides first into the "Four Mighty Ones" who are the Zoas, or chief powers and component aspects of humanity, and these in turn divide sexually into male Spectres and female Emanations (21).

Dialogue between Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim

Criminology, as every science, relies on facts and evidence. This paper is aimed at creating a dialogue between three criminologists of the nineteenth century Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim; in this discussion, they will explain their points of view and try to implement their theories into the reality at the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty first century.Their doctrines were a response to the processes of industrialization and the modernization in the 18th and 19th centuries; they aimed to promote cohesion and rationality in the society (Vold & Bernard, 1986, p. 101) Lombroso and Beccaria are sitting in a bright living room drinking tea and waiting for Durkheim to join them. While the criminologist has not come yet, they have time to talk and discuss each other’s works: Beccaria: Good afternoon, Mr. Lombroso. How are you doing?Lombroso: Good afternoon, Mr. Beccaria. Fine, thanks. What about you? Beccaria: I’m also fine, thank you. I should compliment yo u: recently I have read your work The Criminal Man (1911) and it appeared to be fantastic; I must admit that your point of view is rather interesting; but I have not understood the way you distinguish those three classes of criminals. Lombroso: I will gladly explain you that. Three types of criminals are: Atavist, Criminaloid and Insane criminal.Atavists are the criminals that reproduce the most ferocious characters of a wild animal or a primitive man, which explains that they are well recognized by large jaws, prominent superciliary arches, solitary lines in the palms, their orbits are of extremely large size, handle-shaped or sessile ears found in criminals, they are insensible to pain, have extremely acute sight, their bodies are covered with tattoos, excessive idleness, they love to participate in orgies and have the irresistible craving for evil for its own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim but to mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh and drink its blood.   (Lombroso, 2006, p. 101) Becaria: Remember the case of the Op shop vandalism?I suppose that those teenagers, who have robbed this shop, may be classified as Atavists. Am I right? Lombroso: Exactly. Now let me explain you about two other types of criminals. Criminaloids are respectable persons, who carefully and thoroughly hide their criminal nature from society. They enjoy being respected and realizing that nobody knows about their other â€Å"me†. Criminaloids usually connect their occupation with law or they work for government, which makes it easier for them to hide their crimes.Besides, Criminaloids tend to commit misdemeanors rather than felonies. Insane criminals are mentally ill and not born to be criminals as Criminaloids or Atavists. Insane criminals commit crimes because â€Å"of an alteration of the brain, which completely upsets their moral nature† (Lombroso, 2006, pp. 14-15). I would say that to such category belong alcoholics, kleptomaniacs, child mol esters. Beccaria: I must admit that your theory is rather interesting. Knowing what type of criminal a detective faces, he will know how to punish him or her and where to search for an offender. Lombroso: Yes, but it is not as easy as it may seem.Nowadays, it is very popular among teenagers to have piercing and tattoos or behave aggressively; on the other hand, that does not mean that they are Atavists, it is only the way of expressing themselves. Beccaria: To my mind, Mr. Lombroso, your theory is not perfect. I am sure that there are no those, who were born to be criminals; we live in a free country, and every person is willing to choose what he or she wants; therefore, I am sure that if a person is a criminal, he or she has chosen to act so. I do not say that your approach is not right, but it cannot be implemented in life.Lombroso: I have read your book On Crimes and Punishment, where you have presented your own point of view on this issue. I know that you think that there are tw o characteristics to explain a human behavior: rationality and intelligence. However, I cannot understand how this is related to criminology. Beccaria: Let me explain you, my dear Lombroso. Let us take as an example the case, we have discussed before, the case of the Op shop vandalism. Those juveniles, who were committing this misdemeanor, thought that they would have some particular profit out of this robbery.â€Å"Every single individual is said to be not the servant but the master or manipulator of his/her fate. They are more possessed of free will rather than driven by spiritual phenomena† (Vold & Bernard, 1986, pp. 8-9). They were acting according to their free will; they wrongly thought that they will have some benefit after this act of vandalism. Lombroso: I cannot agree to you, my dear friend Beccaria. Some criminals, it does not matter whether they are Atavists, Criminaloids or Insane criminals, commit some crimes driven only by some particular obsession.For example, Atavists are born criminals, they have no other choice, but to commit crimes, it is their nature. I have talked to those criminals who belong to three different types, and those who are Atavists did not even confess that they have committed a crime. To my mind, criminals are not something extraordinary, they are a part of the modern society, and one cannot do anything with this. Those teenagers, as I have already mentioned, looked like Atavists, they act in a different way in order to feel special.How do you think, why do they have tattoos? Because this reflects their inner insensitivity to pain and their love to adornment (Lombroso, 2006, pp. 84). Durkheim: Good afternoon, my dear friends, Mr. Lombroso, Mr. Beccaria. I am sorry for being late. I suppose you have been discussing some interesting issues about modern criminology without me, have not you been? Lombroso: Yes, you are right, Mr. Durkheim. We were trying to explain each other our theories about criminals, and why they be come criminals. I was trying to prove Mr.Beccaria that there are three types of criminals, and that they are not extraordinary, their criminal nature is what they were born with; it is something like a mental disorder. Besides, I cannot agree to Mr. Beccaria that people commit crimes, because they want to do so. Durkheim: I see. I have read your book The Criminal Man, dear Lombroso. Your theory is rather interesting, although I think that in this very discussion you were too much aggressive with Mr. Beccaria. To my mind, criminal conduct is not something ordinary nowadays; I think that everything is determined by society.Social factors are highly significant and they influence the way a person acts. The point is not that a person has some internal or external reasons to commit a crime; sometimes, a person is driven by social factors. â€Å"A social fact is however normal in relation to a given social type at a given phase of its development, when it’s present in the average society of that species at the corresponding phase of its evolution† (Durkheim, 1982, p 65). Beccaria: I suppose that your theory is based predominantly on the way how society influences criminals and not vice versa. Durkheim: Yes, you are right.I suppose that all world’s societies  are of two types, according to how the labor is divided there: Organic societies and Mechanical societies. Organic societies are more complex; people, who live in such social groups, are more differently employed, they have more opportunities to find job. Mechanical societies, on the other hand, are primitive; they are isolated from other social classes and are relatively self-dependent. They have almost identical life conditions, and they do the same job, all they have one occupation. Lombroso: Do you want to say that a person is more likely to commit a crime in a Mechanical society? Durkheim: Yes, you are right, my dear Lombroso.For a mechanic society, crime is normal; besides, I think t hat there are no societies in the world, where people are not significantly different from the collective type (Durkheim, 1982, p. 70). Let me explain you. Imagine a perfect society, for example, a society of saints; it is a mechanical type of social group. If a person in an organic society, which is an ordinary society, the one we live in, commits a cruel crime, there will be a scandal; the same situation will be if somebody from a mechanical society, from a society of saints, does something wrong, which in an organic society will not be even noticed.If we define what crime is and such criminal behaviors subsists no more in a society, the new criminal behaviors will appear and replace the old ones. However, in organic societies, such quick changes, which appear because of the increasing division of labor, may lead to social rules confusion, and a person may feel lost in this particular society. All social norms break down, and it leads to the appearing of the Anomie. (Durkheim, p. 70) Lombroso: Anomie? Do you mean that it can be a kind of disorder of a society? Beccaria: I suppose, it is possible.Durkheim: You both are right. We are not ready for our society to be changed; it does not matter whether changes are high or low. If society is changed, people who live in this society begin to panic, which leads to the increasing quantity of suicides, people are used to stability. Instability means abnormality. Human appetites are excessive; if some of the goal is unreachable, a person may become depressed and unhappy; on the other hand, people can be limited only by one thing. Lombroso: I cannot agree with you that human appetites are excessive.Durkheim: They are, my dear friend Lombroso; the point is that sometimes those appetites are reduced by some social factors, for example, economic crisis. Economic crisis is a kind of disaster, which makes a person not only be unhappy or depressed, but also commit suicides. Thought I should admit that such anomie will be wor se in an abrupt growth or power and wealth. The original needs can no longer remain but they are not able in accustoming to the new condition. The richer situation will always stimulate the appetites and make them more exigent and impatient of control.  (Durkheim, 1997, pp. 246-247).Do you remember the case of three teenagers, who robbed the Op shop? Beccaria: Yes, we have also used this case as an example explaining our theories. Durkheim: That is good. Those three teenagers have committed the crime because of the process of modernization; the society is changing, and teenagers have an unstable state of mind, which makes it more possible that they commit an offence. This act of vandalism is only their way to show how frustrated they are; how frustrated people in our society are because of coming changes.Beccaria: What about punishment for these crimes? Durkheim: First of all, we should understand that in a mechanical society, law is far more oppressive, while in an organic societ y, laws are to restitute. In mechanical societies, people are bound to be punished for violating the law, whereas in organic societies, punishments are meant to restore a normal functioning of the society. Lombroso: Those three teenagers have committed a crime, and they should be penalized; besides they are Atavists, which means that they were born to be criminals.Durkheim: I agree to you that they have violated the law and should receive a penalty. Nevertheless, their punishment should be fair and effective. The role of judges is only to determine guilt, whereas the role of legislators is to determine crimes and punishment. Besides, I think that it is the extent of damage that should determine the seriousness of an offence. Sometimes, the intention itself may cause bad results. Besides, before those boys were punished, nobody said anything about the purpose of those juveniles.The punishment for those teenagers should not be too severe; it will be ridiculous if those juveniles are s entenced to death or life imprisonment (Durkheim, p. 357). One more essential problem is that people suppose that a criminal should be punished as fast as possible; they think it is more effectively. Finally, it is better to forestall a crime than to penalize a perpetrator. My theory is that a crime itself is a disease, an illness; therefore, the punishment should be compensation.What I want to say is that in order to be a relevant compensation, a punishment should fulfill its role. â€Å"If crime is not pathological, the object of punishment cannot be to cure it. † (Durkheim, pp. 72-75) Lombroso: Your ideas are remarkable to a considerable degree, my dear friend. I suppose they will be useful not only for our modern society, but also for future generations. Beccaria: I think that all the ideas we have heard today will be useful for future criminologists. Thank you, my dear friends, for such a pleasant discussion.

Two Heads Are Better Than One Essays

Two Heads Are Better Than One Essays Two Heads Are Better Than One Essay Two Heads Are Better Than One Essay Two Heads Are Better Than One Two heads are better than one. Is working in a group better than working independently? I think so because you can get more ideas, do the work in a quicker time period and accomplish bigger goals. Firstly, if you work in a group there are more people with you which means there is a variety of thinkers. A variety of thinkers means a mixture of ideas and more success. For example, say you and your staff members have created a product and you want to advertise it in many ways. If you were just working on it alone, you probably wouldn’t get as many results as well as the same quality of work as you would in a group. Secondly, when you do group work instead of individual work, you tend to do the work much faster because the work is divided. The more and more people there are, the lesser time it takes to finish the same work. Let’s take a simple example, a project on aeroplanes. You have to answer about 6 questions on aeroplanes and make a poster board. If you are working in a group, you can divide all the work to each member of the group (answering questions, designing the board, editing, etc. and the process will go much quicker than you having to do all of it yourself. So group work is done much quicker than individual work. Lastly, when you work in a group you can accomplish bigger goals because there are more people. For example, say you have a goal to help the hungry people in the community. If you try to accomplish this goal by yourself, it would be very difficult to do. But when you make an organization, everybody can help and you will meet the needs of your goal. To sum up, it is better to work in a group than to work individually. Thus, two heads are better than one.

Homeland security role in U.S. defense essays

Homeland security role in U.S. defense essays When focusing on anti terrorist tactics several different points need to be discussed. After 9/11 our government has went all out on preventing any other type of attack from terrorist organizations on the United States. With the creation of The Department of Homeland Security by the Bush Administration America is putting a lot of focus on defense as well as going in search of the terrorist threat. The United States is focusing on several different means of protection with 22 agencies and 180,000 employees working solely to ensure Americas safety. Homeland security targets six key areas imperative in defending the country. (Intelligence and Warning), which is the information collected from various sources that will allow our federal government to know if something is being plotted against the U. S., so that we can take whatever means necessary to prevent the threat. (Border and Transportation Security), our Borders are constantly being crossed by land, air, and sea the ability to protect the U.S. is primarily within the country, if they cant get in they cant harm us. Transportation is a big issue considering 9/11. With nearly every person in the country traveling at one point or another it is important to secure their means of transit be it bus, plane, or train mass groups of people seem to be a primary target for terrorist. (Domestic Counterterrorism), the threat of an attack from within America is a very big issue due to the fact that they have the ability to move freely among every city in the U. S. this is why law enforc ement officers are now trained in anti- terrorism. (Protecting critical infrastructures), this has been a big issue since 9/11 drastic measures have been taken to cease any further attack on largely occupied buildings, airports, and other frequently populated areas.(Defending against catastrophic threats), With all the weapons of mass destruction that are now available including chemical weapons ...

Ornament and Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ornament and Architecture - Essay Example The origin of architectural ornamentation can be traced back to the 19th century when classical design is said to have reached its peak in the U.S in what is popularly known as the the American Renaissance. What was evident on the architectural pieces at the time is that they had a style that was commonly used by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio in the first century B.C. What is notable in Vitruvius work and those who heed to his records regarding the classical style, design and ornamentation is that they were based on imitations (Polio 56). Furthermore, the technology applied during this time followed strict rules, which did not give room for innovation since preconception hindered harmonious ornamentation. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), like Vitruvius, is another architect who influenced a lot artwork during the American Renaissance. He considered ornament as something applied or added. In fact, he defined ornament as a type of additional light that was aimed at complementing beauty (Alberti 7). I believe, from this definition, that beauty is something inherent in property, which is supposed to be manifested in the body of a beautiful, whereas ornament instead of being inherent is added or attached to a piece. Alberti argues that beauty is found in nature and may be the main reason for building. Nevertheless, several questions arise from Alberti’s argument because ornamentation is done on the whole work and is part of the whole. Therefore, it is not reasonable for him to have thought that beauty and ornament were separate. Furthermore, it is not reasonable to say that an attached or added ornament is beautiful. Ornamentation of a building is supposed to enhance beauty. Louis Sullivan was the first architect to have understood that ornamentation of a building is essential in enhancing beauty. His works mainly centered on creating an architectural works dependent on context of the project, with integral ornamentation. Sullivan focused mainly on principle of design rather than preconceived rules. He mainly believed in the principle â€Å"form ever follows function† (Dorra 111). From this principle, Sullivan made attempts to fuse his naturalistic ornament with the building’s structure as was seen in Wainwright Building at Saint Louis, Missouri (1890-91) (Dor ra 112). The building is a classical example showing how Sullivan used naturalistic orna

How social or economic issues in this country influence the roles Essay

How social or economic issues in this country influence the roles women and men play in the family today - Essay Example and aided by the feminist movement, the number of women in the workforce has escalated since the 1970’s, a social phenomenon that has redefined the roles of both parents. Increasingly, mothers are contributing more to the family finances while fathers are spending more of their time caring for the kids. Though some decry this inevitable and necessary circumstance because they fear the disintegration of the traditional family unit is detrimental for children, the evidence shows that the opposite is true. For the vast majority of mothers, going to work every day while leaving their children with surrogate moms is clearly not a matter of choice as some have suggested. Of the women who work in two-parent homes, more than 80 percent have spouses who receive $30,000 per year or less. A mother’s choice in many cases is to either allow their children to live in abject poverty or to go to work. Though among the minority, some working mothers have chosen to continue their career pursuits following childbirth but in either case, the workplace is seldom conducive to the family concerns of mothers, or fathers for that matter. Seldom do employers allow a mother to take a year or two off to care for small children without sacrificing position or employment status and are generally upset when mom is often called away to attend matters concerning a child. The choices are hard for mothers. The unsympathetic attitudes towards working mothers among some factions of the public and most employers are not constructive nor aligned with reality (â€Å"Working Mothers†, 1999). Today, more than a quarter of all American kids reside in homes containing one parent, usually the mother, who must work to support the family. Some believe that the label ‘good mother’ implies one that dutifully fills her societal role by remaining home with the children. This belief is based solely on preconceived and outdated stereotypes and not on prevalent scientific data which indicates that